🌈 Neurodiversity 101 🌈 A public educational resource prototype

🐇 Having spent the last 6 weeks down a research rabbit hole, I thought it was time to pop up for air and write something useful. 🐇 Calling for feedback and correction.

The Mad Hatter’s Teaparty from Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland. Photograph: Print Collector/Getty Images. 

July is disability pride month. So this week, I thought I’d prototype the More Human Neurodiversity 101, Neurominorities, Positive Psychology 101 and Glossary pages and call for correction. I want to get this right before I publish these as a public resource on the More Human website.

The purpose of a service prototype is to seek feedback from users so that you can improve it to meet their unmet needs. This is why I’ve unashamedly been prototyping everything I’m doing live in front of a public audience and failing my way forward. 

As a trained service designer and researcher, I believe in co-design - designing services with, not just for, other people. I think it is important to start with the voice of lived experience and show I value the opinions of ADHD and autistic women the medical profession has historically dismissed, failed to include or listen to. I’m listening.

Enhanced error detection - spotting grammatical, factual and technical errors - is an autistic strength. Righteousness - a strong need to be right and a tendency to correct others is an autistic trait. If you want an article fact-checked, ask autistics. I am confident you will quickly correct me if I get this wrong.

I will not be offended. As a design thinker, I see failure as an opportunity to learn and grow. I love feedback and don’t tend to take it personally. I have a growth mindset.

I do, however, draw the line when someone takes it upon themselves to send unsolicited abuse to my inbox. The last time someone did that, I made a public example of them on LinkedIn. I don’t regret it. I have zero tolerance for abuse.

This person then decided it was a good idea to follow up privately with me: “I’d never have posted anything publicly if someone had privately messaged me”, before demanding I send my research to them. Classic.

Yeah, sure, I’m going to allow you to attack me for coming out as autistic, accost me of lacking empathy and not feeling emotions, abuse me for my intelligence and not say anything about it? Oh, also, here is my research.

I was blocked shortly after I told them to stop contacting me. LOL.

I do not doubt that I will continue to attract hate for speaking up about the link between ADHD and autism and gendered violence. So, I was overjoyed when I recently discovered that there is a report abuse or misinformation option on LinkedIn. I used it the last time a troll descended on my profile. 🤬

I’m sure if autistic people knew about this feature, there would be a lot less BS circulating on LinkedIn. Every time I see a person correcting someone with the use of CAPITALS, I smile - autism. Intolerance for misinformation and lying are autistic traits. It is a pity this feature was not available for Rishi Sunak or Donald Trump's campaign speeches (both exits were big wins for women’s mental health). 

This sparked a creative idea! I have a sneaking suspicion autistics are going to LOVE this…

We are building a feedback bar where people can report misinformation, usability problems or errors on every page of the More Human website and BETA ADHD and autism self-screen service for neurodivergent women, non-binary and AFAB.

If you want to offer feedback or correct anything in this resource prototype, please leave feedback in the comments - please stay kind and keep it solution-focused. Please don’t be a dick by being passive-aggressive or antagonistic.

Thanks so much!

🌈 Neurodiversity 101🌈 (DRAFT)

What is neurodiversity?

Neurodiversity in simple human terms, refers to the natural diversity of human minds (Walker, 2012). No two people have the same brain anatomy (Valizadeh et al., 2018). Everyone thinks differently. Humanity is neurodiverse (Asasumasu, 2000). 

People who significantly diverge in mental or neurological function from what is considered typical of most people (though still part of the normal range in humans) may identify as neurodivergent (ND) (Asasumasu, 2000). 

The neurodiversity paradigm is a framework for understanding and accepting mental and neurological differences and people who would otherwise be pathologised as “disordered” under the psychiatric model. 

The neurodiversity movement began in the late 80s, out of the disability rights movement, the social model of disability, and the self-advocacy efforts of autistic people (Botha et al., 2024). 

What percentage of the population is neurodivergent?

15-20% of human beings are thought to be neurodivergent. (Doyle, 2020). The 80% who do not diverge are neurotypical (NT) (Tisoncik, 1998).

Who is neurodivergent?

Neurodivergent is an umbrella term. Anyone can choose to identify as neurodivergent. It is an identity, not a diagnostic label. There isn’t an exhaustive or exclusive list that determines who can or cannot identify as neurodivergent (Wise, 2020).

Sonny has been an unstoppable force in promoting the acceptance of neurodivergent minds and reeducating people about neurodiversity. They are also credited with being the first to create the widely adapted Neurodivergent Umbrella. I was super pleased to see they released a yellow version for their recent book launch.

Picture shared by a rightfully proud Sonny Jane Wise at their book launch.

I think it is super important to role model allyship and elevate other marginalised voices like Sonny’s. For the original post and to follow Sonny, click here.

To buy Sonny's book and support them, click here.

Neurodivergent people have spiky profiles

Neurodivergent people have what is known as a spiky profile - a mixture of significantly elevated abilities and increased difficulties relative to neurotypicals (Happy, 1994). These differences may affect their cognition, executive functioning, motor control, somatosensory system, emotion, behaviour, or social communication. 

Autistics, for example, might have exceptional long-term or episodic memory and difficulties with their short-term or working memory. ADHDers might have hyperattention to detail and difficulties sustaining attention.

Nancy Doyle, the founder of Genius Within, is credited with creating the first infographic to depict the overlap of neurodivergent strengths and continues to write academically about the spiky profile.

To read Nancy’s write-up click here.

🌈 Five principles of neurodiversity

Neurodiversity advocates believe 5 things

🌈 1. Neurodiversity is natural

Neurodiversity, like biodiversity, holds that humans are biologically and neurologically diverse. Natural variation in brain functioning may arise from genetic, social or environmental factors. This causes differences in how we process the world, think, feel and behave. 

🌈 2. There is no “normal”

In simple human terms, neuronormativity is a socially constructed view of what constitutes “normal” thinking, feeling or behaviour.  From a psychological perspective, neuronormativity is a cognitive bias that preferences neurotypical ways of being and rejects divergent ways of thinking, feeling and behaving (Walker, 2016). Neurodiversity opposes neuronormativity, arguing there is no “normal” or “right” way of thinking, feeling, or acting. 

🌈 3. Neurological difference ≠ pathological disorder

Neurodivergent people identify as different, not disordered. 

Neurodiversity rejects the term “disorder” used by the medical model to label people with significant neurological differences. Advocates argue the use of the term “disorder” in mental health is a social construct that promotes neuronormativity and rejects difference, increasing social stigma and exclusion. 

Neurodiversity is anti-pathologisation. Advocates argue neurodivergence is not a disease or disorder to be eradicated, fixed, or cured. However, it is ‌accepted that people may benefit from medications for symptoms associated with certain mental illnesses and neurological disorders, like epilepsy or PTSD.

🌈 4. People are disabled by a society intolerant of difference

The social model of disability (Shakespeare, 2006; Thomas, 2004) postulates that neurodivergent people are disabled by society's failure to appreciate their strengths or accommodate their differences. Neurodivergent people have unique strengths that are hugely valuable to business, academia, and society. They also have innate difficulties that society could better support.

Similarity bias, also known as affinity bias, is an increased appreciation of people like us. In-group bias is a tendency to favour members of one’s ingroup and exclude members of the outgroup (Taylor et al., 1981). Thus, neurominorities representing a tiny percentage of the population are more likely to be excluded from participating actively in society and social groups.

🌈 5. Neurodiverse groups rock

Research shows that diverse groups are more creative and achieve better outcomes. Diversity of thinking is an underappreciated asset. Failure to accommodate is a failure to capitalise on neurodivergent brilliance and a waste of exceptional talent. Neurodiverse groups rock. 

PS Thanks to Dr Alison Lennox, a psychiatrist who specialises in diagnosing adults with ADHD and autism, for inspiring this one with a comment cheering me on. It led to me watching this track on repeat and singing along.

“If you think we can make magic happen”
“Let me hear you say yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah…”

🌈 Neurominorities (DRAFT)

Infographic references

What is a neurominority?

A neurominority is any group that significantly differs in mental or neurological function from what is considered typical of most people (Walker, 2012). 

Neurominorties include a wide range of conditions. These include highly heritable neurodevelopmental and neurological conditions such as autism, ADHD, dyspraxia, Tourette’s, dyslexia, dysgraphia and dyscalculia, chronic neurological conditions such as MS and epilepsy, along with mental health conditions with a later onset such as OCD, schizophrenia, and bipolar. 

Neurodevelopmental conditions have a high comorbidity rate with mental illness (comorbidity is a fancy medical term that refers to a co-occurring illness or disorder). ADHD and autistic humans experience high levels of mental illness, especially depression, anxiety, and PTSD/CPTSD, throughout their lifetime.

Chronic mental illnesses that may emerge later in life include OCD, schizophrenia, and bipolar. It has been argued these are ‌neurological conditions considering the heritability rates of 50% for OCD, 79% for schizophrenia, and 60-90% for bipolar (Hilker et al., 2018; Mataix-Cols et al., 2024; O'Connell et al., 2021).

Anyone with a medical condition that causes changes in the way they process the world might identify as neurodivergent. This includes speech, language and communication disorders, visual or hearing impairment, and epilepsy. 

Neurodivergence can be otherwise acquired through trauma or illness - for example, through sexual abuse, stroke or traumatic brain injury (TBI), all three are reported to cause seizures (Fordingto et al., 2020; Greig & Betts, 1992; Myint et al., 2006). Interestingly, there is a bidirectional relationship between TBI and epilepsy.

Chronic neurological or neurodegenerative conditions that may develop in later life include Epilepsy, MS and Parkinson's. Epilepsy has a strikingly high co-occurrence rate with ADHD and Autism. Up to 77% of people with Epilepsy are ADHD and around half of autistics have epilepsy (Fan et al., 2023; Jeste & Tuchman, 2015). Epilepsy is more common in autistics with an intellectual disability (Pacheva, et al., 2019).

Oddly epilepsy affects more autistic females than males (Amiet, 2008; Blackmon et al., 2016; Ward et al., 2023). This is odd because in the neurotypical population, the sex ratio is 1:1 (Wigglesworth et al., 2023). This oddity is probably best explained by one of three explanations. 

🌈 1. The underdiagnosis of gifted autistic girls biased the research samples towards autistics who are more likely to have epilepsy. 3x as many males are diagnosed with autism (Loomes, 2017). This rises to 10:1 for girls and women without an intellectual disability (Fombonne, 2009; Rivet & Matson, 2011).

🌈 2. High rates of hypermobility EDS amongst neurodivergent women are linked to non-epileptic​​ seizures misdiagnosed as epilepsy (Koreki et al., 2022). 

🌈 3. High rates of gendered violence experienced by neurodivergent women are causing non-epileptic seizures misdiagnosed as epilepsy. 

Dr Jessica Eccles (AKA Bendy Brain) is a psychiatrist figuring out this puzzle for us.

Humans with antisocial (ASPD), narcissistic (NPD), or borderline personalities (BPD) might also identify as neurodivergent. Humans with these personalities are more likely to have ADHD than not (Ditrich et al., 2015; Storebø, 2016). 

However, this pattern is gendered: 3x as many men have ASPD or NPD, and 3x as many women have BPD (Alegria, 2013; Skodol & Bender, 2003; Weidmann et al., 2023).

BPD is the #1 misdiagnosis for female ADHD and/or autism with co-occurring CPTSD (Dell'Osso & Carpita, 2023; Fusar et al., 2020; Gesi et al., 2021; Iversen et al., 2022; Jowett et al., 2020; Rinaldi, 2021). CPTSD is typically caused by relational trauma.

Taken together, neurodivergence may be congenital or acquired, temporary, chronic, or lifelong. Neurodivergence causes significant differences in how we process the world, think, feel and behave, relative to most people. Neurodiversity is the natural diversity of human minds.

🌈 Positive psychology 101 (DRAFT)

”For the last half century psychology has been consumed with a single topic only—mental illness" (Seligman, 2002A, p.1). In 1998 Dr Martin Seligman, then president of the American Psychological Society, founded the positive psychology movement calling for a strengths-based approach to mental health.

Positive psychology is the scientific study of how we can cultivate purpose and wellbeing and reach “optimal human functioning” (or “flourishing”). Positive psychology practitioners believe working with our strengths boosts overall mental health and wellbeing, counterbalancing our difficulties (Seligman, 2002B).

The medical model has been criticised by Seligman as being overly concerned with diagnosing mental “disorders”, remediating “deficits” and overlooking human strengths. He argued that whilst remedial approaches may help get a person from a place of major psychopathology or languishing back to baseline or “mental health”, it fails to help people achieve a state of “mental wellbeing”.

The 80-20 deficit bias holds that humans waste 80% of our energy focusing on deficits or problems to be fixed. This leaves only 20% of our time and energy for opportunities, solutions, or strengths (Cooperrider & Godwin, 2011, 2012).

Positive psychology argues that if we flip this ratio and focus 80% of our effort on our strengths, we create the conditions for optimal human functioning (flourishing).

🌈 Cultivating neuropride

Today is the 31st of July. July is disability pride month. As usual, I’m late to the party. I have been trying to take some time off for me. I penned this article on my 37th birthday.

At the heart of the neurodiversity movement is a need to rewrite unhealthy societal narratives that shame us for being different. It is important to recognise your innate difficulties and the role of an intolerant society in creating additional challenges and take pride in your unique strengths. 

Brene Brown defines shame as a toxic negative emotion caused by a belief that we are unworthy of support, connection, love, and belonging because there is something innately wrong with us (Brown, 2006). Shame cannot survive being spoken about.

For years, I lived with shame caused by chronic abuse from those close to me. Discovering I was AuDHD and identifying as neurodivergent helped me move away from toxic shame, to being proud I survived my family's abuse of me and have navigated this world alone since I was 15 years old.

My psychiatrist said something to me I will never forget “Your intelligence is an asset, Leanne”. “You are very brave”. I replied, “I know - it’s the reason I’m alive.” Later, in therapy, I realised I was abused because I was an autistic child prodigy and was oppressed because I was a girl (Crespi, 2016; Ruthsatz et al., 2015). Tall poppy syndrome is gendered.

That conversation led me to decide that I was going to productise my brain and everything I have learned along the way to create a breakthrough service for women to screen for ADHD and autism, close the gender gap in recognition and widen access to a positive diagnosis. My brain is an asset.

I define neuroshame as a toxic negative emotion caused by a belief you are unworthy of support, connection, love or belonging because your brain is biologically different, society is intolerant of difference and you have internalised society’s abuse, exclusion and rejection of you.

I define neuropride as feeling a feeling of deep pleasure or satisfaction derived from celebrating one's unique neurodivergent strengths. Moving from a place of shame to pride requires us to do three things

🌈 1. Refocus your attention on your unique strengths.

🌈 2. Show yourself unconditional self-acceptance. Practice self-forgiveness when you experience difficulties caused by biological brain differences. Stop berating yourself every time you make a mistake.

🌈 3. Recognise how the role of relational trauma and a society that is intolerant of difference is contributing to your struggles. 

Additionally
Please give less f**ks about what critical people think of you. Be decisive about whose opinions you trust and value.

“When we stop caring what people think, we lose our capacity for connection. But when we are defined by what people think, we lose the courage to be vulnerable.” (Brown, 2015, p. 245).

I am clear on who I trust. The only opinions I give f**k about are the opinions of other neurodivergent women and the doctors who saved my life.

🌈 Today, on my birthday, I am no longer ashamed of my intelligence. I am proud of my neurodivergent brain. Are you proud of yours?

With love, Leanne x

PS: thanks for the 5-star reviews and super helpful feedback. I no longer feel alone in the world. I feel supported. “It's "Hello World," we showin' up, we changin' the game.” (Me echoing my teen idol Gwen Stefani)

🌈 Glossary of terms (DRAFT)

For grammar lessons, see the work of Nick Walker, Neuroqueer. This glossary builds on Nick’s work published here.
https://neuroqueer.com/neurodiversity-terms-and-definitions/

Corrections welcome.

Allistic (citation?)

Not autistic

Comorbidity (Feinstein, 1970)
The condition of having two or more diseases at the same time.

Hyperlexia (Silberberg & Silberberg, 1967)

Early or advanced reading, writing and decoding skills. Hyperlexia is not a stand-alone diagnosis and is part of the autism spectrum. 

Neurodivergent (ND) (Asasumasu, 2000)

Differing in mental or neurological function from what is considered typical of most people, though still part of the normal range in humans. 

Neurodiverse (Asasumasu, 2000)
A group where one or more group members significantly differ in mental or neurological functions, from other members

Neurodiversity (this term was co-created)

The range of differences in individual brain function as part of normal variation in the human population. 

Neurominority (Walker, 2012)

Any group that differs in mental or neurological function from what is considered typical of most people. 

Neuronormativity (Walker, 2016)

Favouring neurotypical ways of being and rejecting divergent ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving.

Neuropride (citation?)
A feeling of deep pleasure or satisfaction derived from celebrating one's unique neurodivergent strengths. 

Neuroinclusion (citation?)

Intentionally including and accommodating people who identify as neurodivergent. 

Neuroshame (citation?)
A toxic negative emotion caused by a belief you are unworthy of support, connection, love or belonging because your brain is biologically different, society is intolerant of difference and you have internalised society’s abuse, exclusion and rejection of you.

Neurotypical (NT) (Tisoncik, 1998)

Not differing in mental or neurological function from what is considered typical of most people, though still part of the normal range in humans. 

Intellectual disability (referred to as a general  learning disability in the UK)

Intellectual ability that is significantly lower than average and in the bottom 2.5% of the population; ID often co-occurs with autism.

Intellectual giftedness (​​Galton, 1869)

Intellectual ability that is significantly higher than average and in the top 2.5% of the population; IG often co-occurs with autism.

Savant syndrome (Langdon, 1887)

Savant means ‘learning’ or ‘scholar’ in French. Savant syndrome is characterised by exceptional talents in one or more domains together with an eidetic memory. Savant syndrome is not a clinical diagnosis. Savant syndrome most commonly co-occurs with autism.

References 

Alegria, A. A., Blanco, C., Petry, N. M., Skodol, A. E., Liu, S. M., Grant, B., & Hasin, D. (2013). Sex differences in antisocial personality disorder: results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Personality disorders, 4(3), 214–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031681

Amiet, C., Gourfinkel-An, I., Bouzamondo, A., Tordjman, S., Baulac, M., Lechat, P., Mottron, L., & Cohen, D. (2008). Epilepsy in autism is associated with intellectual disability and gender: evidence from a meta-analysis. Biological psychiatry, 64(7), 577–582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.04.030"

Blackmon, K., Bluvstein, J., MacAllister, W. S., Avallone, J., Misajon, J., Hedlund, J., Goldberg, R., Bojko, A., Mitra, N., Giridharan, R., Sultan, R., Keller, S., & Devinsky, O. (2016). Treatment Resistant Epilepsy in Autism Spectrum Disorder: Increased Risk for Females. Autism research : official journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 9(2), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1514

Botha, M., Chapman, R., Giwa Onaiwu, M., Kapp, S. K., Stannard Ashley, A., & Walker, N. (2024). The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory. Autism : the international journal of research and practice, 28(6), 1591–1594. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613241237871

Brown, B. (2006). Shame resilience theory: A grounded theory study on women and shame. Families in Society-The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 87(1), 43–52.

Brown, B. (2015). Rising Strong. Vermilion.

Crespi B. J. (2016). Autism As a Disorder of High Intelligence. Frontiers in neuroscience, 10, 300. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2016.00300

Dell'Osso, L., & Carpita, B. (2023). What misdiagnoses do women with autism spectrum disorder receive in the DSM-5?. CNS spectrums, 28(3), 269–270. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852922000037

Down J. L. (1887). Lettsomian Lectures on Some of the Mental Affections of Childhood and Youth. British medical journal, 1(1362), 256–259. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.1362.256

Doyle N. (2020). Neurodiversity at work: a biopsychosocial model and the impact on working adults. British medical bulletin, 135(1), 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldaa021

Ditrich, I., Philipsen, A., & Matthies, S. (2021). Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) revisited - a review-update on common grounds and subtle distinctions. Borderline personality disorder and emotion dysregulation, 8(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40479-021-00162-w

Duarte, M., Blay, M., Hasler, R., Pham, E., Nicastro, R., Jan, M., Debbané, M., & Perroud, N. (2024). Adult ADHD and pathological narcissism: A retrospective-analysis. Journal of psychiatric research, 174, 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2024.04.032

Fan, H. C., Chiang, K. L., Chang, K. H., Chen, C. M., & Tsai, J. D. (2023). Epilepsy and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Connection, Chance, and Challenges. International journal of molecular sciences, 24(6), 5270. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24065270

Feinstein, A. (1970). The pre-therapeutic classification of comorbidity in chronic disease. J Chron Dis 1970; 23:455–468

Fordington, S., & Manford, M. (2020). A review of seizures and epilepsy following traumatic brain injury. Journal of neurology, 267(10), 3105–3111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-020-09926-w

​​Fombonne E. (2009). Epidemiology of pervasive developmental disorders. Pediatric research, 65(6), 591–598. https://doi.org/10.1203/PDR.0b013e31819e7203

Fusar-Poli, L., Brondino, N., Politi, P., & Aguglia, E. (2022). Missed diagnoses and misdiagnoses of adults with autism spectrum disorder. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience, 272(2), 187–198. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-020-01189-w

Galton, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. London: Macmillan.

Gesi, C., Migliarese, G., Torriero, S., Capellazzi, M., Omboni, A. C., Cerveri, G., & Mencacci, C. (2021). Gender Differences in Misdiagnosis and Delayed Diagnosis among Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder with No Language or Intellectual Disability. Brain sciences, 11(7), 912. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11070912

Greig, E., & Betts, T. (1992). Epileptic seizures induced by sexual abuse. Pathogenic and pathoplastic factors. Seizure, 1(4), 269–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/1059-1311(92)90036-z

Happé F. G. (1994). Wechsler IQ profile and theory of mind in autism: a research note. Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines, 35(8), 1461–1471. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01287.x

Hossain M. M. (2020). Alice in Wonderland syndrome (AIWS): a research overview. AIMS neuroscience, 7(4), 389–400. https://doi.org/10.3934/Neuroscience.2020024

Hilker, R., Helenius, D., Fagerlund, B., Skytthe, A., Christensen, K., Werge, T. M., Nordentoft, M., & Glenthøj, B. (2018). Heritability of Schizophrenia and Schizophrenia Spectrum Based on the Nationwide Danish Twin Register. Biological psychiatry, 83(6), 492–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.08.017

Iversen, S., & Kildahl, A. N. (2022). Case Report: Mechanisms in Misdiagnosis of Autism as Borderline Personality Disorder. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 735205. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.735205

Jeste, S. S., & Tuchman, R. (2015). Autism Spectrum Disorder and Epilepsy: Two Sides of the Same Coin?. Journal of child neurology, 30(14), 1963–1971. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073815601501

Jowett, S., Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., & Albert, I. (2020). Differentiating symptom profiles of ICD-11 PTSD, complex PTSD, and borderline personality disorder: A latent class analysis in a multiply traumatized sample. Personality disorders, 11(1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000346

Koreki, A., Eccles, J., Garfinkel, S., Critchley, H., Cope, S., Agrawal, N., Edwards, M., & Yogarajah, M. (2022). Hypermobility in patients with functional seizures: Toward a pathobiological understanding of complex conditions. Epilepsy & behavior : E&B, 132, 108710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2022.108710

Mataix-Cols, D., Fernández de la Cruz, L., Beucke, J. C., De Schipper, E., Kuja-Halkola, R., Lichtenstein, P., & Pol-Fuster, J. (2024). Heritability of Clinically Diagnosed Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Among Twins. JAMA psychiatry, 81(6), 631–632. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2024.0299

Loomes R., Hull L., Mandy W. P. L. (2017). What is the male-to-female ratio in autism spectrum disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 56(6), 466–474.

Myint, P. K., Staufenberg, E. F., & Sabanathan, K. (2006). Post-stroke seizure and post-stroke epilepsy. Postgraduate medical journal, 82(971), 568–572. https://doi.org/10.1136/pgmj.2005.041426

O'Connell, K. S., & Coombes, B. J. (2021). Genetic contributions to bipolar disorder: current status and future directions. Psychological medicine, 51(13), 2156–2167. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721001252

Pacheva, I., Ivanov, I., Yordanova, R., Gaberova, K., Galabova, F., Panova, M., Petkova, A., Timova, E., & Sotkova, I. (2019). Epilepsy in Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Children (Basel, Switzerland), 6(2), 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/children6020015

Ruthsatz, J., Petrill, S. A., Li, N., Wolock, S. L., & Bartlett, C. W. (2015). Molecular Genetic Evidence for Shared Etiology of Autism and Prodigy. Human heredity, 79(2), 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1159/000373890

Rivet T., Matson J. (2011). Gender differences in core symptomatology in autism spectrum disorders across the lifespan. Journal of Developmental & Physical Disabilities, 23(5), 399–420.

Rinaldi, C., Attanasio, M., Valenti, M., Mazza, M., & Keller, R. (2021). Autism spectrum disorder and personality disorders: Comorbidity and differential diagnosis. World journal of psychiatry, 11(12), 1366–1386. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v11.i12.1366

Seligman, M. E. P. (2002A). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2002B). Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 3–9). Oxford University Press.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. Free Press.

​​Shakespeare, T. (2006). The social model of disability. The Disability Studies Reader, 2, 197–204.

Skodol, A. E., & Bender, D. S. (2003). Why are women diagnosed borderline more than men?. The Psychiatric quarterly, 74(4), 349–360. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1026087410516

Storebø, O. J., & Simonsen, E. (2016). The Association Between ADHD and Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD): A Review. Journal of attention disorders, 20(10), 815–824. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054713512150

Taylor, Donald M.; Doria, Janet R. (April 1981). "Self-serving and group-serving bias in attribution". Journal of Social Psychology. 113 (2): 201–211. doi:10.1080/00224545.1981.9924371.

Thomas, C. (2004). Rescuing a social relational understanding of disability. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 6(1), 22–36.

Tisoncik, L.A. (2020). Autistics.Org and Finding Our Voices as an Activist Movement. In: Kapp, S. (eds) Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_5

Walker N (2021). "Neurodiversity: Some Basic Terms & Definitions". Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities. Fort Worth: Autonomous Press. ISBN 978-1-945955-27-3.

Walker, N., & Raymaker, D. M. (2021). Toward a Neuroqueer Future: An Interview with Nick Walker. Autism in adulthood : challenges and management, 3(1), 5–10. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2020.29014.njw

Ward, J. H., Weir, E., Allison, C., & Baron-Cohen, S. (2023). Increased rates of chronic physical health conditions across all organ systems in autistic adolescents and adults. Molecular autism, 14(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-023-00565-2

Wigglesworth, S., Neligan, A., Dickson, J. M., Pullen, A., Yelland, E., Anjuman, T., & Reuber, M. (2023). The incidence and prevalence of epilepsy in the United Kingdom 2013-2018: A retrospective cohort study of UK primary care data. Seizure, 105, 37–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seizure.2023.01.003

Weidmann, R., Chopik, W. J., Ackerman, R. A., Allroggen, M., Bianchi, E. C., Brecheen, C., Campbell, W. K., Gerlach, T. M., Geukes, K., Grijalva, E., Grossmann, I., Hopwood, C. J., Hutteman, R., Konrath, S., Küfner, A. C. P., Leckelt, M., Miller, J. D., Penke, L., Pincus, A. L., . . . Back, M. D. (2023). Age and gender differences in narcissism: A comprehensive study across eight measures and over 250,000 participants. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 124(6), 1277–1298. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000463

Valizadeh, S. A., Liem, F., Mérillat, S., Hänggi, J., & Jäncke, L. (2018). Identification of individual subjects on the basis of their brain anatomical features. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-23696-6